Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Hand Washing in Disease Prevention

Hand Washing in Disease Prevention Introduction The most frequent way of germ spreading is by people’s hands. Most of the times germs are harmless but sometimes they can also be reason for illnesses like flu, cold and gastroenteritis. Washing your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water is one of most important thing you can do to avoid spreading infections and it helps to protect you, your family members and people around you. Specially every health-care worker or a person who concerned in direct or indirect patient care must be care about hand hygiene and must be able to perform it properly and at the correct time. It helps to prevent health care-associated infections [2]. â€Å"CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)† has estimated that every year almost 2,000,000 patients in the USA get an infection in hospitals, and about 90,000 of these patients die as a result of their infection [1]. History of hand washing Hand washing with soap and water has been used as a measure of personal hygiene for a long time and has been generally implanted in religious and civilizing practices. However the relationship between hand washing and the spread of disease was confirmed only near 200 years ago. Ignaz Semmelweis established that hospital-acquired diseases (HAD) been transmitted through the hands of health care workers by his studies in Austria, Vienna and Oliver Wendell Holmes in Boston USA. In 1847, he was appointed as a house officer in an obstetric clinic at the University of Vienna Allgemeine Krankenhaus. He observed that maternal mortality rates, commonly reasonable to puerperal fever, were considerably higher in mentioned clinic compared with the other. He also identified that doctor as well as medical students usually went straight to the delivery suite after doing autopsies and had an unpleasant odor on their hands regardless of hand washing with soap and water earlier to entering the clinic. He introduced that â€Å"cadaverous particles† from the autopsy room, that transmitted through the hands of students and doctors to the delivery theatre caused the fever. As a result, Semmelweis suggest that hands be cleansed by a chlorinated lime solution before examine each patient and also after leaving the autopsy room. Following the administration of this measure, the mortality rate fell affectedly to 3% in the clinic remained low. Apart from providing the 1st evidence that cleansing thoroughly contaminated hands with an antiseptic agent can decrease nosocomial transmission of germs more significantly than washing hands with plain soap and water, this method includes all the essential elements for successful contamination control interference: â€Å"recognize-explain-act†. Both Holmes and Semmelweis failed to examine a sustainable change in the behavior change of their colleagues’ behavior. In particular, Semmelweis experienced great difficulties in persuading his colleagues and directors of the benefits of this method. In the light of the ethics of social marketing in the present day, his key mistake was that he introduced a system change (administration of the chlorinated lime solution) without explaining the attitudes of his collaborators. In spite of these mistakes, the Semmelweis intervention has teach us many lessons; the â€Å"recognize-explain-act† approach has driven many investiga tors. Semmelweis’s intervention is also a type of epidemiologically obsessed strategies to avoid infection. In 1980s concepts of hand hygiene in health care has been changed. The 1st national hand hygiene guidelines were in print in the 1980s. â€Å"The Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) in the USA† suggested that whichever antimicrobial soap or a antiseptic agent be used for cleaning hands while leaving the rooms of patients with drug-resistant pathogens in 1996.In recent past the HICPAC guidelines issued alcohol-based hand rubbing.[3] With the time methods of hand washing and chemicals that use are change with research inventions. Normal bacterial flora of the body (1) Axilla, perineum and between the toes (2) Hand, face and trunk (3) Upper arms and legs. Skin with partial occlusion like axilla, perineum and between the toes contain more microorganisms than less occluded areas as legs, arms, and trunk The numbers of bacteria on the skin of a person remains relatively constant; Survival of the bacteria and the extent of colonization probably depend in part upon the contact of skin to a exact environment and partly due to the innate and species-specific bactericidal activity in skin. Most of the microorganisms live in the superficial layers of the stratum, corneum and the upper parts of the hair follicle. Some bacteria are located in the deeper areas of the hair follicles and are away from the reach of normal disinfection procedures. These bacteria are reservoirs for settlement after the surface of bacteria were removed. Staphylococcus epidermidis S. epidermidis is an important microorganism that lives on the skin, and in some areas it makes more than 90% of the resident aerobic flora. Staphylococcus aureus The nasal area and perineum are the most familiar sites for S. aureus colonization. S. aureus is common to the vulva. S. aureus is very often (80% -100%) to the skin of patients with certain dermatological diseases such as atopic dermatitis. Gram-negative bacteria They occupy small portion of the skin flora. Micrococci Micrococci are not as frequent as staphylococci and diphtheroids; on the other hand, they are often present in normal skin. Micrococcus luteus, is the predominant species. Diphtheroids The term refers to diphteroid, a variety of bacteria belonging to the genus Corynebacterium common in the armpit and on open skin. They like to be involved in the pathogenesis of acne. Streptococci ÃŽ ²-hemolytic streptococci, are infrequently seen on normal skin. ÃŽ ±-hemolytic streptococci, exist primarily in the mouth little spread on the skin. Nail Flora Dust particles and other foreign matter can accumulate under the nail. They can carry fungi and bacilli, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium and Mucor wear.[4] Transmission of pathogens by hand There are two main routs of transmission of pathogens. Airborne transmission Contact transmission Airborne transmission They can be transmitted from the respiratory tract through talking coughing sneezing, from the skin by natural cracking of skin scales, during wound dressing or bed making and by aerosols, also from equipment such as respiratory apparatus and air conditioning plants. Contact transmission The most frequent routes of transmission for infection are by direct contact spread from one to another or by indirect contact spread by unhygienic hands or equipment. Staphylococcal streptococcal sepsis, enteobacterial diarrhea Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis are examples for diseases that can be arise due to contact transmission. So hand washing is very important in preventing contact transmission of pathogens and so to avoid spreading diseases. [5] Transmission of health care-associated (HCA) pathogens from one patient to another via health care workers’ (HCWs) hands requires five sequential steps, Micro-organisms to present on the patient’s skin, or have been shed onto dead objects instantly surrounding the patient. Micro-organisms should be transferred to the hands of HCWs. Micro-organisms should be able to survive for at least few minutes on HCWs’ hands. Amount of hand washing or antisepsis of hand by the HCW should be insufficient or entirely omitted, or the substance used for hand hygiene unsuitable. The unhygienic hand or hands of the caregiver must approach into direct contact with another patient or with an object that will come into direct contact with the patient.[3] Steps of hand washing Hands can cleanse with soap, alcohol, water etc. Hand hygiene technique with alcohol-based formulation. There are 8 steps duration is nearly 20-30 seconds, 1st step Apply a full palmed amount of the product in a cupped hand, to cover all surfaces. 2nd step Rub hands palm to palm. 3rd step Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers and vice versa. 4th step Palm to palm with fingers interlaced. 5th step Backs of fingers to opposing palms with fingers interlocked. 6th step Rotational rubbing of left thumb clasped in right palm and vice versa. 7th step Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice versa. 8th step Dry. 8 Hand Hygiene Technique with Soap and Water. It takes 40-60 seconds there are 10 steps, 1st step- Wet hands with water; apply enough soap to cover all hand surfaces. 2nd step- Rub hands palm to palm. 3rd step- Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers and vice versa. 4th step- Palm to palm with fingers interlaced. 5th step- Backs of fingers to opposing palms with fingers interlocked. 6th step- Rotational rubbing of left thumb clasped in right palm and vice versa. 7th step- Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice versa. 8th step-Rinse hands with water. 9th step- Dry hands thoroughly with a single use towel. 10th step- Use towel to turn off faucet. [3] Substances that used in hand washing Soap and detergents Reduce barriers to solution and increase solubility is the main action of soap and detergents. [6] Water temperature Hot, soapy water is more successful than cold, soapy water on removing the natural oils on hands which grasp soils and bacteria. [6] Antibacterial soap Antibacterial soaps have been greatly promoted to a health-conscious community. No evidence for that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. Although, antibacterial soaps contain general antibacterial chemicals such as Triclosan, which has a wide list of resistant strains of micro-organisms. [6] Solid soap Because of its reusable character, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. However as the micro-organisms are rinsed off with the foam, it is implausible that any bacteria are transferred to users of the soap. [6] Hand antiseptic A hand sterilizer or hand antiseptic is a non-aqua-based hand hygiene mediator. Most of them are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulate which mixed with a thickening agent such as Carbomer , or humectant such as glycerin, or foam for easiness of use and to diminish the drying result of the alcohol. [6] Alcohol-based hand sanitizers They are almost entirely ineffective against Norwalk type viruses, the most general reason for contagious gastroenteritis.[6] Ash or mud This is also a disinfecting agent. WHO suggested ash or sand as option for soap when soap is not available. [6] Importance of hand washing when to wash hands Importance of hand washing Hand washing is like a vaccine that someone can do it yourself, which consist of five simple steps (Wet, Lather, Scrub, Rinse, Dry).Important to reduce the spread of diarrheal and respiratory illness therefore you can stay well. Habitual hand washing, mainly before and after certain activities, is one of the best ways to remove microorganisms, keep away from illnesses, and to reduce the spread of germs [1]. When to wash hands in day today life Always wash your hands before; cooking food or eating, taking or giving medicine, Inserting or removing contact lenses. [8] Also wash your hands after: preparing food, specially raw meat or poultry, changing a diaper or using the toilet, touching an animal or animal toy, leashes or waste, blowing your nose, coughing or sneezing into your hand, caring for a sick or injured person, handling trash, household or garden chemicals, or anything that could be contaminated like cleaning cloth or soiled shoes shaking hands with others. [8] When to wash hands for health care workers Beforeperforming invasive procedures like taking care of particularly susceptible patients such as those who are severely immunocompromised and newborns. [9] Before and after touching wounds traumatic, surgical or related with an invasive device. [9] Aftersituations during which microbial contamination of hands is probable to occur, especially those involving contact with mucous membranes, blood or body fluids, and body secretions or excretions ,touching dead sources that are likely to be contaminated with virulent or epidemiologically significant microorganisms; these sources contain on urine-measuring devices or secretion collecting apparatuses, taking care of an infected patient or one who is likely to be colonized with microorganisms of special clinical or epidemiologic importance, for example multiple-resistant bacteria and between contacts with different patients in high-risk units.[9] Diseases occur due to bad hand hygien Infections that may be transmitted through this route include hepatitis A, salmonellosis, shigellosis, giardiasis, enterovirus, campylobacteriosis and amebiasis. As these diseases are spread through the intake of even the little particles of fecal material, hand washing after using the toilet cannot drop be take easily. â€Å"Influenza,streptococcus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and the common cold† are diseases spread through indirect contact. As these diseases can be spread indirectly by hands contaminated by respiratory discharges of infected people, illness may be reduced by washing hands after coughing or sneezing and after shaking hands with someone who has been coughing and sneezing. Microorganisms transmitted by one or more body substances such as urine, saliva or other moist body substance include cytomegalovirus, typhoid, staphylococcal organisms, and Epstein-Barr virus. These organisms may be transmitted from person to person or indirectly by contamination of food or inanimate objects such as toys. [10] Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria (MRSA and VRE), tuberculosis, and some viruses like HIV, herpes, RSV, rhinovirus, vaccinia, and fungus and stop diseases. [9] Thus, hexachlorophene and quaternary ammonium compounds are valuable for prophylaxis of staphylococcal infection but not of infection by Pseudomonas pyocyanea.[12] Antibiotics such as neomycin and bacitracin, which are rarely administered systemically, may be applied as topical antiseptics. They should be used in combinations, or mixed with synthetic agents such as chlorhexidine, in order to minimize the risk of producing resistant strains. [12] Recurrent furunculosis is usually the result of re infection from a carrier site on the patients body. Many nurses become carriers of hospital staphylococci, and the furunculosis which in some hospitals causes a good deal of minor ill-health, is often a consequence of cross-infection. [12] World hand washing day Global hand washing day is October 15. Global hand washing day is an annual global encouragement day devoted to expanding knowledge and understanding about the importance of hand washing with soap as a successful and inexpensive way to prevent diseases. It is an opening to design, test, and reproduce creative ways to encourage society to wash their hands with soap at important times. The day was founded by the Global Public-Private Partnership for Hand washing. [7] Disadvantages of hand washing There are some disadvantages of hand washing, some products that used in hand washing can be affect to generate bad effects in hand washing. Triclosan is an antibacterial agent which also has some antifungal and antiviral properties that contain in hand washing agents, researchers have found that it causes to change hormone balance in animals, also can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant germs and can be harmful to the immune system.[11] Sodiumlaureth Sulfate (SLS) and triclosan are two commen ingredients contain in hand washes which are responsible for most cases of contact dermatitis. The SLS is a foaming agent used in many personal care products. As well as hand washing products, it contains in shampoo, shower gel, toothpaste; potentially in shortly whatever thing that foams. A small number of people are sensitive to SLS and may lead to skin dryness or contact dermatitis. [11]

Monday, January 20, 2020

Future Perfect :: essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Many futurologists - professional (Toffler) and less so (Naisbitt) - tried their hand at predicting the future. They proved quite successful at predicting major trends but not as lucky in delineating their details. This is because, inevitably, every futurologist has to resort to crude tools such as extrapolation. The modern day versions of biblical prophets are much better informed - and this, precisely, seems to be the problem. The cluttered information obstructs the outlines of the philosophically and conceptually most important elements. The futurologist has to divine which - of a host - of changes which occur in his times and place ushers in a new era. Since the speed at which human societies change has radically accelerated - the futurologist's work has become more compounded and less certain. It is better to stick to truisms, however banal. True and tried is the key to successful (and, therefore, useful) predictions. What can we rely upon which is immutable and invariant, not dependent on cultural context, technological level, or geopolitical developments? Human nature, naturally. The introduction of human nature into the equation which should yield the prediction may further complicate it. Human nature is, arguably, the most complex thing in the universe. It is characteristically unpredictable and behaviourally stochastic. It is not the kind of paradigm conducive to clear-cut, unequivocal, unambiguous forecasts. This is why it is advisable to isolate two or three axes around which human nature - or its more explicit manifestations - revolves. These organizational principles must possess comprehensive explanatory powers, on the one hand - and exhibit some kind of synergy, on the other hand. I propose such a trio : Individuality, Collectivism and Time. Individuation is the Separation principle, the human yearning for uniqueness and idiosyncrasy, for distinction and self sufficiency, for independence and self expression. Collectivism is the human propensity to agglomerate, to stick together, to assemble, the herd instincts and the group behaviours. Time is the principle which connects both. It is the bridge linking individual and society. It is an epiphenomenon of society. In other words, it arises only when people assemble and can compare themselves to others. This is not Time in the physical sense, which is discernible through the relative positions and physical states of physical systems. Every human - alone as he may be - is bound to notice it.

Sunday, January 12, 2020

Marketing Paper Final Exam Essay

Final Paper Marketing encompasses the complex cycle of every stage of a product, from conception to the final sale and everything in between. Marketers are challenged with identifying the consumers needs/wants and managing the process to meet those needs. Every product a marketer develops goes through four stages in its life, The Product Life Cycle. Each stage of the product life cycle (Introduction, Growth, Maturity, and Decline) have unique characteristics that a marketer faces as they create utility and try to maintain or grow their market share. Through each stage advertising is critical and marketers try to inform, persuade and remind consumers about their product. The difference is the approach and focus of the advertising. Every product that comes to market enters into the Introduction Stage. This is the stage where consumers are first introduced to the product. â€Å"During the introductory stage of the product life cycle, a firm works to stimulate demand for the new market entry. † (Boone & Kurtz, 2006, p. 371) A marketer must connect with consumers to create a market for the new product. Every year hundreds of new products enter the introductory stage. Currently a product that is just beginning to take hold is high-definition televisions (HDTVs). HDTVs broadcast pictures with increased clarity and give the viewer (consumer) options on camera angles and additional information. Currently, â€Å"Yankee Group estimates that 15 percent of American households now own (a HDTV), with Forrester estimating 10 percent at most. † (Crawford, 2005) During the introductory stage, marketers are trying to introduce the product to consumers. One of the ways marketers succeed is in offering promotions or discounts to distributors to get the product in the marketplace. Most of the advertising focuses on informing the public about the new product. While information is key, advertisers also try to persuade consumers to purchase the product and often times remind consumers where they can find the product. The Introductory stage is where all products start. It is in this early stage that products are refined based on consumer and distribution feedback. Often times the numbers of marketers are minimal in the introductory stage as the market is being developed. As a product finds its market and begins to gain acceptance, it moves into the Growth Stage of the product life cycle. The growth stage is where a product sees its sales volumes increase dramatically. At this stage in the product’s life, â€Å"new customers make initial purchases and early buyers repurchase. † (Boone & Kurtz, 2006, p. 372) Early marketers find increased competition as their competitors enter the product space to share in the profits. Satellite television has entered into the growth market with the advent of the small dish. Early satellite television was mainly limited to rural areas that were inaccessible to cable television. The dishes were large and unattractive. As the technology has advances and the satellite dish has shrunk to less then twenty-four inches, consumers have rushed to the alternative to cable television. Satellite television marketers are continuing to refine their product in this growth stage. Recently, the top two providers of satellite television signed deals to provide affordable high-speed internet service. â€Å"For satellite-TV providers, the service is another way to offer a full line of products. † (AP, 2006) The growth stage is where marketers move from a heavy focus on information in advertising to a more persuasive approach. The persuasive approach allows the marketers to differentiate from competitors and encourage individuals to not be left behind. If the product space attracts multiple marketers, pricing, features and other differentiators are used in the advertising to help marketers gain or maintain market share. The Growth Stage of the product life cycle is complex and changing. Marketers rely on word-of-mouth, mass advertising and falling prices to sustain the momentum and interest in the product. The goal of the growth stage is to get reluctant buyers to buy and current customers to repurchase. As a product matures and growth stabilizes, the product moves in the Maturity Stage. Sales start to plateau and supply exceeds demand for the first time in the products life cycle. Competing marketers have flooded the field and profits begin to become depressed. All of these factors create pressure on marketers to continue their brands sustainability. Carbonated soft drinks are a very mature product. According to the American Beverage Association (ABA) the beginnings of the modern soda started in the 1830’s. (ABA, 2006) The ABA estimates that there are over 450 brands in the product space. The number of brands creates fierce competition for American’s 65 billion in annual purchases. Adverting in the mature stage of a product’s life is all about increasing purchases, differentiating your brand and finding new uses or markets for the product. In the soft drink space marketers try celebrity endorsements and product differentiation. 7-UP is â€Å"the un-cola†, trying to draw its distinction among more popular cola brands. Whatever approach the marketer takes in advertising, the goal is to extend the maturity stage and maintain profits for as long as possible. A product in the mature stage of the product life cycle does not indicate imminent demise. As illustrated above, soft drinks continue to command consumer’s dollars. Marketers will often look to new markets and changes in the product to extend the life of the product. One of the largest struggles for mature products is maintaining profits as competition drives down prices. As the product leaves maturity it enters the Decline Stage in the Product life cycle. A products decline is most often linked to new technologies. Marketers focus on reminding the remaining customers in the market that they are there for the consumer’s needs. Sales decline, profits decline and the product space eventually looses money. VCRs are a product on the decline in the United States. With the advance of DVDs and the reduction in price of DVRs, VCRs are loosing shelf space and market share. Marketers often times search for new markets as products decline in their existing markets. So while the United States and Europe may transition to a new technology, emerging economies may embrace the â€Å"older† and cheaper technology, thus extending the products life. Advertising a product in the stage of decline focuses on reminding the remaining consumer base the product still exists.

Friday, January 3, 2020

What Is Social Facilitation Definition and Examples

Social facilitation refers to the finding that people sometimes work more effectively on a task when they’re around others. The phenomenon has been studied for over a century, and researchers have found that it occurs in some situations but not in others, depending on the type of task and context. Key Takeaways: Social Facilitation Social facilitation refers to the finding that people sometimes perform better on tasks when others are around.The concept was first proposed by Norman Triplett in 1898; psychologist Floyd Allport labeled it social facilitation in 1920.Whether or not social facilitation occurs depends on the type of task: people tend to experience social facilitation for tasks that are straightforward or familiar. However, social inhibition (decreased performance in the presence of others) occurs for tasks that people are less familiar with. History and Origins In 1898, Norman Triplett published a landmark paper on social facilitation. Triplett enjoyed bicycle racing, and he noticed that many cyclists seemed to ride faster when they were racing with other riders, compared to when they were riding alone. After examining official records from a cycling association, he found that this was indeed the case—records for races where another rider was present were faster than records for â€Å"unpaced† rides (rides where the cyclist was trying to beat someone else’s time, but no one else was currently racing on the track with them). In order to test experimentally whether the presence of others makes people faster at a task, Triplett then conducted a study that has been considered one of the first experimental social psychology studies. He asked children to try to turn a reel as quickly as possible. In some cases, the children completed the task by themselves and, at other times, they competed with another child. Triplett found that, for 20 of the 40 children studied, they worked faster during competitions. Ten of the children worked more slowly in competitions (which Triplett suggested could be because competition was overstimulating), and 10 of them worked equally quickly whether they were in competition or not. In other words, Triplett found that people sometimes work more quickly in the presence of others—but that this doesn’t always happen. Does Social Facilitation Always Happen? After Triplett’s studies were conducted, other researchers also began to investigate how the presence of others impacts task performance. (In 1920, Floyd Allport became the first psychologist to use the term social facilitation.) However, research into social facilitation led to contradictory results: sometimes, social facilitation occurred, but, in other cases, people did worse at a task when someone else was present. In 1965, psychologist Robert Zajonc suggested a potential way of resolving the discrepancy in social facilitation research. Zajonc reviewed prior research and noticed that social facilitation tended to occur for relatively well-practiced behaviors. However, for tasks that people were less experienced with, they tended to do better when they were alone. Why does this happen? According to Zajonc, the presence of other people makes people more likely to engage in what psychologists call the dominant response (essentially, our â€Å"default† response: the type of action that comes most naturally to us in that situation). For simple tasks, the dominant response is likely to be effective, so social facilitation will occur. However, for complex or unfamiliar tasks, the dominant response is less likely to lead to a correct answer, so the presence of others will inhibit our performance on the task. Essentially, when you’re doing something you’re already good at, social facilitation will occur and the presence of other people will make you even better. However, for new or difficult tasks, you’re less likely to do well if others are around. Example of Social Facilitation To give an example of how social facilitation might work in real life, think about how the presence of an audience might affect a musician’s performance. A talented musician who has won numerous awards might feel energized by the presence of an audience, and have a live performance that’s even better than practiced at home. However, someone who is just learning a new instrument might be anxious or distracted by the pressure of performing under an audience, and make mistakes they wouldn’t have made when they practiced alone. In other words, whether or not social facilitation occurs depends on someone’s familiarity with the task: the presence of others tends to improve performance on tasks people already know well, but tends to decrease performance on unfamiliar tasks. Evaluating the Evidence for Social Facilitation In a paper published in 1983, researchers Charles Bond and Linda Titus examined the results of social facilitation studies and found some support for Zajonc’s theory. They found some evidence of social facilitation for simple tasks: on simple tasks, people produce a greater quantity of work if others are present (though this work wasn’t necessarily better quality than what people produce when they’re alone). They also found evidence of social inhibition for complex tasks: when the task was complicated, people tended to produce more (and to do work that was higher quality) if they were alone. Comparison to Related Theories A complementary theory in social psychology is the theory of social loafing: the idea that people may exert less effort on tasks while they are part of teams. As psychologists Steven Karau and Kipling Williams explain, social loafing and social facilitation occur under different circumstances. Social facilitation explains how we act when the other people present are observers or competitors: in this case, the presence of others can improve our performance on a task (as long as the task is one we have already mastered). However, when the other people present are our teammates, social loafing suggests that we may exert less effort (potentially because we feel less responsible for the group’s work) and our performance on a task may be decreased. Sources and Additional Reading: Bond, Charles F., and Linda J. Titus. â€Å"Social Facilitation: A Meta-Analysis of 241 Studies.†Ã‚  Psychological Bulletin, vol. 94, no. 2, 1983, pp. 265-292. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-01336-001Forsyth, Donelson R. Group Dynamics. 4th ed., Thomson/Wadsworth, 2006. https://books.google.com/books/about/Group_Dynamics.html?idVhNHAAAAMAAJKarau, Steven J. and Kipling D. Williams. â€Å"Social Facilitation and Social Loafing: Revisting Triplett’s Competition Studies.† Social Psychology: Revisiting the Classic Studies. Edited by Joanne R. Smith and S. Alexander Haslam, Sage Publications, 2012. https://books.google.com/books/about/Social_Psychology.html?idWCsbkXy6vZoCTriplett, Norman. â€Å"The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking and Competition.†Ã‚  The American Journal of Psychology, vol. 9, no. 4, 1898, pp. 507-533. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1412188Zajonc, Robert B. Social Facilitation.  Science,  vol. 149, no. 3681, 1965, pp. 269-274. https://w ww.jstor.org/stable/1715944